Historically, women have faced persecution and discrimination due to a combination of cultural, religious, and social factors. These beliefs, entrenched or deeply rooted in ancient civilisations, have enduring effects that shape contemporary societies. Understanding the historical context and theories that explain these phenomena helps us recognise the persistent challenges women encounter. Theories such as feminist, gender role, psychoanalytic, social constructionist, evolutionary psychology, and those addressing the gender gap in areas like economics and politics offer a broad framework for examining women's roles within societal structures. They highlight the significance of promoting gender equality and empowering women.
In numerous ancient cultures, phenomena that defied explanation were frequently ascribed to supernatural elements, leading to women, particularly those skilled in herbalism, healing, or childbirth, being regarded as possessing enigmatic abilities. Such fear of the inexplicable resulted in women being branded as witches or accursed. Many of these patriarchal civilisations, where men wielded the majority of power, saw women who challenged social conventions or showed autonomy met with distrust and stigmatised as witches or cursed, a method used to preserve dominance and quell opposition to the status quo. Ancient myths and stories from various religions often depicted women as the origin of evil or misfortune, such as Greek mythology's tale of Pandora, which portrays a woman releasing all evils into the world, reinforcing negative views of women and justifying their mistreatment. In contrast, Abiola Abrams' book "African Goddess Initiation" celebrates women as powerful, divine entities, yet acknowledges the simultaneous reverence and fear they inspired, representing both creation and destruction. In times of crisis like plagues or famines, societies frequently sought a scapegoat, and women who stood out or defied norms were convenient targets. Accusing them of witchcraft or curses was a means of exerting control and oppression, allowing patriarchal systems to perpetuate dominance and subjugation through social, legal, and religious channels.
The oppression of women has left enduring impacts that continue to shape contemporary societies. Women's intelligence and autonomy have often been perceived as challenges to the status quo, resulting in attempts to diminish these qualities. This is particularly evident for mothers and/or nurses who frequently face pressure to adhere to conventional roles. Nonetheless, progress is being made. Numerous societies are now questioning these archaic standards and striving for gender parity. Women's intellect, leadership, and achievements across various domains are increasingly recognised and celebrated. The path to genuine equality persists, illustrating the importance of persistently promoting and supporting women's rights and empowerment.
War has profound and often catastrophic impacts on women, intensifying existing gender disparities and introducing new hardships. Women in conflict zones are commonly subjected to sexual violence, exploitation, and abuse, which serve as instruments of war to terrorise and destabilise communities. The collapse of social frameworks and the loss of male relatives frequently compel women to assume the roles of primary earners and carers, imposing significant physical and emotional strains on them. Moreover, their access to vital services like healthcare, education, and legal aid is drastically restricted, further marginalising them and obstructing their efforts to reconstruct their lives. The enduring psychological effects of war, including trauma and mental health disorders, can linger long after the conflict ceases. Nevertheless, women frequently take on vital roles in peacebuilding and recovery initiatives, championing their rights and striving for a more inclusive and equitable society. It is essential to address the distinct needs and experiences of women in conflict and post-conflict scenarios to realise sustainable peace and gender equality.
Examples
The situation for women in Afghanistan has taken a significant step backward in recent years. Since August 2021, there have been numerous reports of severe restrictions on women's rights and freedoms. Women have been largely erased from public life, with bans on education beyond the sixth grade and restrictions on employment. The mental health crisis among Afghan women has also been exacerbated by these oppressive measures. Despite these challenges, there are still voices advocating for change. It has been called for the reopening of schools and universities for girls, emphasising the importance of education in empowering women and promoting a more inclusive society.
Yemen: Women in Yemen face severe restrictions on their rights and freedoms, including limited access to education and employment.
Saudi Arabia: Despite recent reforms, women in Saudi Arabia still face significant legal and social restrictions, particularly in terms of guardianship laws and freedom of movement.
Iran: Women in Iran face strict dress codes and limitations on their personal freedoms, as well as significant barriers to political and social participation.
India: Women in India face high levels of gender-based violence and discrimination, with significant challenges in accessing education and employment.
Pakistan: Women face severe restrictions on their rights and freedoms, including limited access to education and employment.
Bangladesh: A large percentage of women are victims of domestic violence, and other forms of abuse are rapidly increasing.
Somalia: Women in Somalia experience high levels of gender-based violence and limited access to education and healthcare.
Democratic Republic of the Congo: Women in the DRC face extreme levels of violence, including sexual violence, and have limited access to justice and healthcare.
Turkey: Despite being a candidate for EU membership, Turkey has faced criticism for its treatment of women, particularly regarding domestic violence and honour killings.
Russia: Women in Russia face high levels of domestic violence, and there are limited legal protections for victims.
Ukraine: The ongoing conflict has exacerbated issues of gender-based violence and discrimination against women.
Poland: Recent changes in abortion laws have sparked protests and highlighted issues of women's rights and reproductive freedom.
Hungary: Women in Hungary face challenges related to gender equality, particularly in the workplace and in political representation.
England: While England has made significant progress in gender equality, challenges remain. Women still face issues such as the gender pay gap, underrepresentation in leadership positions, and high levels of domestic violence
Theoretical Perspectives
Feminist Theory
Feminist theory represents a significant branch of sociology that reorients its foundational assumptions, analytical focus, and subject matter from the traditional male perspective to that of women. It emphasises social challenges, patterns, and issues that have been neglected or inaccurately represented by the historically prevalent male viewpoint in social theory. The goal of feminist theory is to explore the nature of gender inequality through the analysis of women's roles and experiences in society.
Gender Role Theory
Gender role theory suggests that traditional gender roles are frequently reinforced through family upbringing, media portrayals, and educational institutions. It emphasises the influence of patriarchy in perpetuating certain roles, typically associating men with authority and power, and women with nurturing and supportive duties.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory, particularly regarding the "feminine" psyche, has significantly influenced the comprehension of gender dynamics. Karen Horney's contributions challenged male-dominated psychoanalytic theory, particularly Freudian theory, by introducing social and political factors in the construction of theory and how women are viewed and regarded within it. Her perspective has been crucial in recognising the psychological impetus for male dominance over women and the passive acceptance of this subordination by women.
Social Constructionist Theory
Social constructionist theory suggests that gender is not an inherent biological trait but rather a complex set of socially mediated behaviours, roles, and identities. This perspective challenges essentialist notions of gender, highlighting the ways in which gender norms and expectations are produced, reproduced, and challenged within different cultural and historical contexts.
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary psychology attempts to explain gender differences in terms of biological adaptations. It explores the varied reproductive challenges encountered by each sex over the course of human history and correlates them with psychological and behavioural traits. This field often attempts to explain gender differences based on evolutionary adaptations, which can sometimes be used to justify traditional gender roles.
Gender Gap Theories
These theories examine the differences between men and women in areas such as workforce participation and political representation. The Global Gender Gap Report 2024 emphasises the present condition and progression of gender equality across four principal dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment. They provide a framework for understanding the systemic origins of gender disparities and the necessary actions to bridge these gaps.
The historical persecution of women, rooted in ancient beliefs and societal norms, continues to impact modern societies. While progress has been made, the journey towards true gender equality is far from over. Achieving genuine equality requires a profound and ongoing commitment from all genders. It is essential to continue advocating for and supporting women's rights and empowerment, challenging outdated norms, and amplifying the voices of women globally. By reflecting on the past and understanding the origins of these beliefs, we can work towards a more inclusive and equitable future for everyone. Embracing these theoretical perspectives allows for a deeper comprehension of the historical and ongoing struggles women face, propelling us towards a truly equal society.
References:
Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge.
Horney, K. (1937). The Neurotic Personality of Our Time. W.W. Norton & Company.
Burr, V. (2015). Social Constructionism (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind. Allyn & Bacon.
Kray, L. J., Howland, L., Russell, A. G., & Jackman, L. M. (2017). The Effects of Implicit Gender Role Theories on Gender System Justification: Fixed Beliefs Strengthen Masculinity to Preserve the Status Quo. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(1), 98-115.
Davis, L. (2021). Dusting off the Law Books: Recognizing Gender Persecution in Conflicts and Atrocities. Northwestern Human Rights Law Review Journal.
Lewsey, F. (2024). They Weren't Witches; They Were Women: The Witch-Hunts and Their Repercussions. Open Access Government.
Oswald, K. (2023). Gender Discrimination: An Overview of Historical and Contemporary Issues. Journal of the International Academy for Case Studies, 29(1), 1-2.
Risman, B. J. (2018). Where the Millennials Will Take Us: A New Generation Wrestles with the Gender Structure. Oxford University Press.
Robeyns, I. (2003). Sen's Capability Approach and Gender Inequality: Selecting Relevant Capabilities. Feminist Economics, 9(2-3), 61-92.
Abrams, A. (2021). African Goddess Initiation: Sacred Rituals for Self-Love, Prosperity, and Joy. Hay House Inc.
Comments